Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Financial Letter of Advice Board of Carat Ltd
Question: Discuss about theFinancial Letter of Advicefor Board of Carat Ltd. Answer: To, The Board Carart Ltd External Accountant 22 September 2016 Dear Nicole, (Subject: Financial Letter of Advice) The board of Carat Ltd is presented with this letter of advice. The financial impact which declaration of rebate before or after 30h June can have- It was observed that one of the shareholders of Carart Ltd has efficiently contributed well over half of the annual income. For this reason, the board has considered to reward its shareholders by offering a rebate to them by $300,000, particularly as bonus for their efforts. This can be accounted for further expenses of the company and it indicated that it is fair for its stakeholders in regard to their contribution. [1] Without Rebate Payment Considering Rebate Payment 50% Rebate Payment Rental Income 100000 100000 100000 Rebates 750000 750000 750000 Gross Income 850000 850000 850000 Salaries 100000 100000 100000 Rebate Paid 300000 187500 Other Expenses 210000 210000 210000 Interest 45000 45000 45000 Total Expenses 355000 655000 542500 Net Profit before Tax 495000 195000 307500 Less: Income Tax 148500 58500 92250 Net Profit after Tax 346500 136500 215250 Less Dividend 200000 78788 124242 Net Profit after Tax Dividend 146500 57712 91008 Net Profit Margin 63.53% 28.24% 41.47% From the above table it can be observed that if the rebate is paid before 30 June in the year 2016 then the company will not attain its required 30% net profit margin as after paying such rebate the companys net profit after tax will decrease. However, if the company decides to pay 50% of its total rebate then it might be able to attain the desired percentage of its net profit margin. If the company maintains its net profit margin after paying considerable rebate amount then it can be gain bank funding easily. Representation of earnings management and evaluate whether it is good or bad- Earnings management can be used by the board of Carart Ltd as it act as a tool in offering information to investors. This tool will serve as the better estimate for continuous earning power and if the market understands this, the share price of the company will rapidly reflect the internal information. The vital patterns of the earnings management those must be considered by Caret Ltds board include income minimization, maximization and smoothing. It is vital to consider that the board of the company can be motivated by distinct patterns of earnings management but such patterns might come under conflict. [2] For example, Carart Ltd might desire to smooth its income for borrowing needs and at the same time decrease income for certain political rationales. The board must consider use of earnings management in employing accounting techniques for generating financial statements, as it will present a positive vi ew of the companys business conducts and financial situation. Earnings management avails advantage of the ways accounting rules are implemented and generate financial reports those inflate earnings, total assets and revenue. Earnings management can be considered bad for it might be able to decrease the financial statement information dependability. Managers might twist reported earnings for not those obvious reasons. Conversely, there is an increased dependence on earnings management for offering the companys shareholders with internal information for the expenses of revealing internal information are quite high[3]. However, earnings management if implemented by the board of Carat Ltd can also reveal its good side that is concerned with effective contracting. At the time a contract imposes difficult or inadequate terms on manager, earnings management can offer flexibility option as long it does not consider the managers opportunistic motivations.[4] Moreover, for the company, earnings management can prove to be a manner to unblock communication to the public[5]. Blocked communication persists at the time it is complex and highly expensive to translate a managers capable expertise regarding the company or its board of directors. Through efficient use of financial statements for communicating the companys financial health, earnings management might be employed for informing Caret Ltds shareholders about the companys internal information. Earnings management is to be implemented by Caret Ltd for this will serve as long term lending contract pertains to safeguard the lender from the potentially adverse actions of the companys board. This serves as a motivation to steer managers away from violating debt contract as such violation can be increasingly costly for the company and might affect its capability to operate the business. [6] Recommendations on which the rebate year must be committed to pre or post 30th June- Carart Ltd can decide to pay its rebate in the year 2016 by paying 50% of the rebate amount. This decision will help the company in attain 41.47% net profit margin that is required to obtain bank funding. Based on the AAA model, decision making on the companys rebate payment is taken that includes: Establishing the facts- The financial impact of paying rebate before or after 30th June, 2016 is evaluated. Recognizing the ethical concerns- Ethical payment to the stakeholders must be considered while taking any decision on payment. Recognizing the norms- Decision of rebate payment is taken within its ethical, social and professional behavioral context. Look for alternative course of action- From the analysis, it was gathered that there are alternative cases of rebate payment. One is not paying the rebate at all this year as it might decrease the net profit margin gradually. Another scenario is paying 50% of the rebate amount that will increase the net profit margin. Considering possible consequences- Considering the payment of 50% rebate amount to be most desirable, possible consequences are increased net profit margin and effective earnings management. Another consideration is not paying the rebate whose consequence also includes increase in net profit margin. Financial decision making- Based on the consequences of the decisions, the most desirable decision is considered to be payment of 50% rebate amount in the year 2016. Kindly, consider the letter of advice offered based on several effective considerations and from these the companys continued success in all future business conducts is expected. Yours Sincerely, Name References Ball, Ray. "Accounting informs investors and earnings management is rife: Two questionable beliefs."Accounting Horizons27, no. 4 (2013): 847-853. Bhren, yvind, Morten G. Josefsen, and Pl E. Steen. "Stakeholder conflicts and dividend policy."Journal of Banking Finance36, no. 10 (2012): 2852-2864. Dechow, Patricia M., Amy P. Hutton, Jung Hoon Kim, and Richard G. Sloan. "Detecting earnings management: A new approach."Journal of Accounting Research50, no. 2 (2012): 275-334. Joe, Jennifer R., Diane J. Janvrin, Dereck Barr-Pulliam, Stephani Mason, Marshall K. Pitman, Zabihollah Rezaee, Kerri-Ann Sanderson, and Yi-Jing Wu. "The Auditing Standards Committee of the Auditing Section of the American Accounting Association is Pleased to Provide Comments on PCAOB Staff Consultation Paper No. 2015-01, The Auditor's Use of the Work of Specialist s: Participating Committee Members."Current Issues in Auditing9, no. 2 (2015): C18-C37. Li, Wilson XB, Tina T. He, and Gordon YN Tang. "Ultimate control, expropriation and dividend payments: a reputation management perspective."Journal of General Management40, no. 2 (2014). Watts, Ross L., and Luo Zuo. "Understanding Practice and Institutions: A Historical Perspective."Accounting Horizons30, no. 3 (2016): 409-423.
Monday, May 4, 2020
Human Genetic Engineering Denies Childrenââ¬â¢s Autonomy Samples for Stude
Question: Human Genetic Engineering Denies How Childrens Autonomy? Ansswer: Introduction Genetic engineering normally refers to the various genetic modifications made in order for the manipulation of an organisms genome directly through the use of biotechnology. Genetic engineering is the set of all technologies methods and approaches that are used in the process of changing the genetic makeup of different cells. The genetic engineering includes the transfer of various genes within and even across different species boundaries to come up with improved and novel organisms[1]. The DNA is inserted into the host genome by isolating and copying the genetic materials of interest by using molecular cloning methods to come up with a DNA sequence or through synthesizing the DNA and inserting its content into the host organism. Human genetic engineering has been widely developed in the recent past in which the human is the host and receives modified and improved DNA. Therefore, human genetic engineering is aimed at eliminating and reduction of unwanted human traits and replacing th em with improved, better characteristics through modification of human genome by altering the DNA of human embryos.The germline gene therapy generates wide-ranging ethical issues. Human Genetic engineering has been employed in the betterment of medicine hence leading to improved patient outcomes. The application of this knowledge in medical technology, human genetic engineering has resulted in improved treatment and eradication of some genetic medical conditions including cancer, cystic fibrosis, and Parkinsons disease. The dark side of the gene therapy is the altering human genetic composition beyond the proper scope of medicine. If this technology is used for example in altering the gene for the human growth hormone, just to allow a child to be taller than his peers brings out a new spectrum of issues. Although the human genetic engineering has some advantages on the improvement, it has very many adverse effects on people. There are various arguments against human genetic engineering which include; the human genetic engineering limits the childrens autonomy to create and shape their destinies, there is the fear that the human genetic engineering may lead to eugenics[2], we are playing God, human genetic engineering process is not safe and that human genetic engineering may lead to vast social inequalities. Therefore, human genetic engineering should be discouraged and if possible abolished. Human Genetic Engineering denies Childrens Autonomy There is an argument that the human genetic engineering usually and extensively limits the childrens freedom to shape their destinies[3]. If the parents are capable of remaking their childs genetic makeup, they are writing the genetic instructions that will shape the childs entire future. If the parents gave the child blue eyes instead of brown ones, if they make him tall instead of short or medium height, if they choose for the child a passive over an aggressive personality, these choices by the parents would have a direct and lifelong effect on the child[4]. Augustine argues that people are naturally imperfect and that what is expected. Since the days in the Garden of Eden, man has remained to be imperfect and passes this to the successive generations and not be altered since it makes who we are. Augustine argues that all the human characteristics whether negative or positive are important because that is our nature. Augustine says that even laziness and negligence to do certain th ings are natural and essential vices since labor itself is a punishment. Therefore, people should be allowed to choose their autonomy[5]. Human Genetic Engineering can lead Eugenics There are researches aimed at using the cutting-edge science to eliminate the condition of autism. The method is not designed to reduce autism or making life better for the many autistic persons but tries to eliminate autism by eliminating autistic people[6]. This can be compared to when the Nazis were creating a master race[7]. This argument explains that human genetic engineering enhancement usually leads to discrimination against the disabled in the society as well as genetically unfit. Augustine states that there should be no discrimination not even because of a disease or disorder since the different cultures are not as important as we think but there are on lay two kinds of society that can be referred to as two cities hence discrimination of persons or trying to eliminate them because of their disorders or inequality is unfair. Human Genetic Engineering may lead to Social Inequalities There is an argument that the human genetic engineering will eventually result in social inequalities. This inequality is brought about by the fact that the rich usually enjoys genetic enhancements through high intelligence, perfect eyesight, improved heights that the poor cannot afford. Therefore, the critics are right that the world with human genetic engineering will contain inequalities[8]. Safety in Human Genetic Engineering Both the somatic gene therapy and the germline gene therapy procedures are not entirely safe. The way and the process in which the corrected DNA is inserted into the human genome is not entirely safe. These methods make use of viral vectors and such viral factors sometimes triggers massive and widespread systemic immune responses. The altered genes that are inserted into the genome can disrupt functional genes hence causing mutations[9]. We are playing God This argument is similar to the one that proposes that we should not interfere with nature because that how God created it to be[10]. Human genetic engineering is aimed at improving human life or creating new genes that replace the natural genes that we are born with. Therefore, the use of this technology is an abomination to many religious diehards. Most people believe that we are beautifully and wonderfully made in the image of God and we should be happy with ourselves and not try to change who we are. Conclusion Human genetic engineering is currently being applied in various medical practices which include treatment and eradication of some genetic medical conditions including cancer, cystic fibrosis, and Parkinsons disease[11]. However, human genetic engineering has also been used for non-medical purposes to get rid of unwanted genes or modify genes to get the desired traits. These non-medical uses have created a widespread debate based on the ethical and medical basis. Some are for a while others are against human genetic engineering. Those against human genetic engineering claim that; human genetic engineering limits the childrens autonomy to create and shape their destinies, there is the fear that the human genetic engineering may lead to eugenics, we are playing God, human genetic engineering process is not safe and that human genetic engineering may lead to vast social inequalities. Therefore, human genetic engineering is harmful to the society if used for other non-medical practices an d should be discouraged. References Erlich, Henry. PCR technology: principles and applications for DNA amplification. Springer, 2015. Garner, Stephen. "Christian Theology and Transhumanism: The Created Co-creator and Bioethical Principles." Religion and Transhumanism: The Unknown Future of Human Enhancement: The Unknown Future of Human Enhancement (2014): 229. Giubilini, Alberto, and Sagar Sanyal. "The ethics of human enhancement." Philosophy Compass 10, no. 4 (2015): 233-243. Husted, Jrgen. "2 Autonomy and a right not to know." The Right to Know and the Right Not to Know: Genetic Privacy and Responsibility (2014): 24. Lanphier, Edward, and Fyodor Urnov. "Don't edit the human germ line." Nature 519, no. 7544 (2015): 410. Laws, Terri, W. Duncan Wadsworth, and Michael O. Emerson. "Making Babiess: Religion and Moral Diversity in Views on Abortion and Human Genetic Engineering." (2013). Paul, Diane B. "What Was Wrong with Eugenics? Conflicting Narratives and Disputed Interpretations." Science Education 23, no. 2 (2014): 259-271. Sandel, Michael J. "The case against perfection: what's wrong with designer children, bionic athletes, and genetic engineering." Arguing About Bioethics (2012). Sandel, Michael. "The case against perfection." The Atlantic Monthly 293, no. 3 (2004): 51-62. Sharon, Tamar. "The Human Enhancement Debate: For, Against and from Human Nature." In Human Nature in an Age of Biotechnology, pp. 57-78. Springer Netherlands, 2014. [1] Erlich, Henry. PCR technology: principles and applications for DNA amplification. Springer, 2015 [2] Sharon, Tamar. "The Human Enhancement Debate: For, Against and from Human Nature." In Human Nature in an Age of Biotechnology, pp. 57-78. Springer Netherlands, 2014. [3] Laws, Terri, W. Duncan Wadsworth, and Michael O. Emerson. "Making Babiess: Religion and Moral Diversity in Views on Abortion and Human Genetic Engineering." (2013). [4] Sandel, Michael. "The case against perfection." The Atlantic Monthly 293, no. 3 (2004): 51-62. [5] Husted, Jrgen. "2 Autonomy and a right not to know." The Right to Know and the Right Not to Know: Genetic Privacy and Responsibility (2014): 24. [6] Sandel, Michael J. "The case against perfection: what's wrong with designer children, bionic athletes, and genetic engineering." Arguing About Bioethics (2012). [7] Paul, Diane B. "What Was Wrong with Eugenics? Conflicting Narratives and Disputed Interpretations." Science Education 23, no. 2 (2014): 259-271. [8] Giubilini, Alberto, and Sagar Sanyal. "The ethics of human enhancement." Philosophy Compass 10, no. 4 (2015): 233-243. [9] Lanphier, Edward, and Fyodor Urnov. "Don't edit the human germ line." Nature 519, no. 7544 (2015): 410. [10] Garner, Stephen. "Christian Theology and Transhumanism: The Created Co-creator and Bioethical Principles." Religion and Transhumanism: The Unknown Future of Human Enhancement: The Unknown Future of Human Enhancement (2014): 229. [11] Erlich, Henry. PCR technology: principles and applications for DNA amplification. Springer, 2015.
Monday, March 30, 2020
The Slightly True Story of Cedar B. Hartley free essay sample
The slightly true story of Cedar B. Hartley (who planned to live an unusual life) By Martine Murray As Bo Diddley quoted, ââ¬Å"Dont judge a book by its coverâ⬠I have always believed in this quote. So one day when I picked up The slightly true story of Cedar B. Hartley (who planned to live an unusual life) I was tempted to but it down when I saw the cover, but I remembered what Mr Diddley had said and decided to give it a go. To my disappointment the book was pointless and extremely boring. Martine Murray is an Australian author and illustrator currently living in Melbourne, Australia.She has written many critically acclaimed books. She started writing because she thought it would be a good idea to learn a practical skill like typing. The slightly true story of Cedar B. Hartley (who planned to live an unusual life) is a book that I simply did not enjoy reading. We will write a custom essay sample on The Slightly True Story of Cedar B. Hartley or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I found the plot very boring and the story was very slow paced. There was no originality in the book. The characters on the other hand is very different matter itself. Martine Murray has developed each characters personality thoroughly. Cedar B. Hartley has hellish red hair and is exasperatingly infamous.She avoids action in her street and drifts instead towards the puddles. In Cedars puddle theres Cedar whod really like to be called Lana Munroe. Her friend Caramella Zito and Ricci a fifty year old lady. But suddenly, things seem to change. Its starts off when her dog Stinky disappears or when her brother Barnaby ran away. Cedar meets a boy called Kite, who swings from trees and does hand springs. Her puddle is getting bigger and more complicated. Kites father Ruben used to be in the circus, his friend Oscar who wobbles and is unstable. Oscars mother ran off with another man abandoning him. New things are happening. Cedar is learning to balance and tumbles with Kite. They practise tumble turns and handstands. Riccis dog is sick and needs an operation. Cedar plans to organise a circus to raise the money needed. This story is told by Cedar herself in first-person. I would recommend this book to those who just want to lie back and read a book that is slow paced with no exciting parts. But if you are looking for an exciting, fast paced novel that will keep you on the edge of your seat, this book is just not for you.
Saturday, March 7, 2020
Exceptional Education Referral To Placement Essays - Free Essays
Exceptional Education Referral To Placement Essays - Free Essays Exceptional Education Referral To Placement Abstract This paper will reflect upon the school-wide dilemma of students, families and schools involved in the referral and placement process of students with special needs such as specific learning disabilities and beyond. This is a genuine problem in our Florida school system as each year is seems to take longer for a student who has been referred by an educator to be placed into a situation which best meets their academic and/or emotional needs. This paper will concentrate on stories derived from primary stakeholders dealing with this situation. The stakeholders for this particular story are; Diana, a 3rd grade student in need, and her family, her teacher, the school psychologist, and the school exceptional student education teacher. Each stakeholder will present their version of the problem as a personal situation. Exceptional Education-Referral to Placement Time: A School-Wide Dilemma My story begins by telling you that I am a 3rd grade teacher and have taught elementary school for close to four years. In that time, I have been able to teach many youngsters and also see that there are some learners whose needs exceed what I have been able to give them in a regular classroom setting. When I used to teach fifth grade, most students with academic concerns had already been identified and place, part time, in an SLD (Specific Learning Disability) setting as needed. However, some students had still managed to travel through six years of public school barely scraping by. Now teaching third grade, I have two students in particular I am highly concerned about. One of which has been on the refer for testing list since second grade and has still not been able to be placed in an educational setting which will focus on her needs. The second little girl is mostly likely a result of her mother taking drugs while she was in the womb. This child's development seems to be slowing as the rest of the students around her progress. For this paper, I am going to focus on the plight of the first child for my example. From my observations as the teacher of the little girl I will refer to as Diana, it is extremely evident a regular classroom setting is not meeting the needs of this child. STAKEHOLDERS There are many people in this little girl's life who hold a stake in her successes. I, as her teacher, am certainly one, as well as herself, her parents and family, our school varied exceptionalities teacher, the county/school psychologist and the school principal. This list could also continue to her future teachers and beyond, but I will be discussing the stories of the main stakeholders I have previously listed. Teacher's Story Diana, at nine years old, has already been detained once in her schooling career. This child is able to identify letters, but digraphs such as Sh, or Ch are not comprehensible to her. Now in third grade, it is clear me that Diana is not learning at the same rate as her fellow classmates. I felt from within the first week that she was in my class that this child was well below grade level. I see her frequently off task, dawdling if you will by shuffling papers, organizing her desk and book bag, practically anything to avoid showing her classmates that she does not understand the work that is going on in the classroom. As Diana's teacher, I am troubled that in my regular classroom, I cannot give her the full attention and services that would meet her individual needs. I did the by the book way that a teacher is supposed to do to find out the history of this child. This meant checking the cumulative folder of past school history and I also spoke with her previous teachers and inquired with the guidance counselor as to whether or not she was on a testing list. I was informed that Diana had been referred by her second grade teacher, but it would be helpful if I continued with documentation of school work and followed up. I have done this and I have also discussed Diana's situation at quarterly profile meetings about students where the principal, teacher and curriculum resource teacher are all present. Unfortunately, because Diana
Thursday, February 20, 2020
History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 30
History - Essay Example This ensured that the trade continued to grow as the growing demand for the goods could not be satisfied. Traders in the region realized the profitability of undertaking long distance trade, and this encouraged many to join it; thus, ensuring the further expansion of trade. From the east, especially China was a demand for products from further westward such as gold, ivory, and perfumes, which were extremely rare in that country. On the other hand, there was a demand for various eastern products such as silk and spices to the west, and these products fuelled the increase in the number of traders on the eastern long distance trade. This was not the case with the Western Hemisphere because this region was not thought of as being as developed as the East. Moreover, those who were involved in trade in this region only did it on a small scale because of the high insecurity within it. Bandits whose main aim was to kill and take loot to the trade goods that were being transported haunted most of the trade routes in the Western Hemisphere. The dangers involved in such trade discouraged it in the Western Hemisphere, and only few courageous people ever ventured into long distance trade. In fact, a majority of European traders preferred being involved in the long distance trade of the east because of safety that was guaranteed to them. In addition, the success of the long distance trade can be attributed to some of the powerful empires that developed along the trade routes. Some of these, such as the Mongol empire occupied almost the entire trade route, and because they derived taxes from the trade conducted, the Mongol administration ensured that all the trade routes were cleared of bandits. This immensely encouraged more traders to get inv olved in the trade because there was no fear of them being robbed or killed in the process of conducting their activities (Prazniak 177). Therefore, it can be said
Tuesday, February 4, 2020
Types of Variables Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Types of Variables - Research Paper Example This would help render better educational support and employment in the regions that lag in those. Insurance rate can be calculated from the type of job and income. It can either be high insurance for people in private jobs with high income and low insurance for those in private jobs with low income or those in government jobs with a high profile gets highly insured than those with a low profile government job. These probabilities can be calculated from the table. In the perspective of health care and medicine, we can also derive the possible percentage effects of blood pressure on hypertension. Way in which weight is related to body temperature and hypertension can also be obtained by queries. And research on the high probability of non-smokers getting cancer and smokers getting cancer can be made very simple with the operational table that is categorized well. Under the cancer categorization, one can determine curability of the disease that depends on the stages of cancer. If the c ase is in pathological stage, he/she is in the critical zone and is totally helpless. If a non-smoker categorized under clinical stage, there is a high possibility that he can undergo medication for a certain period of time to recover from the disease. It helps the case study for medical researchers easier. The measure of blood pressure can be referred for other medical factors such as diabetes, premature ventricular contractions, etc. The region categorization in a way provides ordinals of people suffering from cancer or high blood pressure in that particular zone which might be due to the environmental effects of that region. Each variable used above is dependent on the remaining variables. Constructing an abstract operational table with these variables helps us predict how certain factors affect the outcome. It makes hypothesis and fuzzy concepts that seem to appear difficult easier.
Monday, January 27, 2020
Nonverbal Communication In Negotiations Cultural Studies Essay
Nonverbal Communication In Negotiations Cultural Studies Essay Cultural specific studies have focused attention on cultural and communication practices in specific countries, while conflict resolution and negotiation studies have integrated intercultural communication in their theories. Studies have identified factors influencing intercultural business communication which include effects or emotions and non-verbal behaviour. The earliest of these comparative theoretical and applied studies reflected in the conditions existed in the early stages of globalization following world war two. During this period complex international business transactions could be channeled through fully bilingual specialists who provided translation and interpretation services, while simple communication exchanges such as obtaining and fulfilling sales orders could be processed through routine channels. These transactions did not impose the same communication requirements as do the interactive and intercultural communication channels of the present day of international business communication environment. Since 1960s, language studies traditionally emphasized verbal and written communication, however in the recent times more research studies seriously began to consider what takes place without words in conversations, in instances were verbal and nonverbal communication meets (Hartley Bruckham, 2000). The research would start by discussing problems of communicating across social boundaries and then define and discuss some of the concepts associated with non verbal miscommunication in cross cultural meetings and negotiation. Then it would also focus on both verbal and non-verbal communication factors and consider how much scope there is for ambiguity and interpretation. If it can be anticipated how other people will interpret to what we say and do, then our communication can be made more effective. We also need to bear in mind that communication is not just the transmission and reception of information. No matter how carefully we feel we have encoded our message, we need to be aware of all the factors which can influence how other people will interpret our behaviour. The research would also address how cultural factors affect cross-cultural communication and explain in bridging cultures, and some strategies they can use to overcome cross-cultural communication problems. Nonverbal behaviours unintentional, beyond the words, can be interpreted by a receiver as having meaning. They either accompany verbal messages or are used independently of verbal messages. They may affirm and emphasize or negate and even contradict spoken messages. They are more likely to be used unconsciously and spontaneously because they are habitual and routine behaviours. There are seven key elements of Nonverbal Behaviour which include gestures, body moments, facial movements, eye contacts, postures, vocalics and haptics. Gestures, body moments, facial movement and eye contact are combined in the kinesics code, which vary culturally, also referred to as body language. The study of this caters to traditional linguistic principles to the parts of the body particularly the face, hands and arms or body as a whole. It also addresses posture in standing and sitting as well as with eye and facial expressions such as the arching of eyebrows or rolling of the eyes. Vocalics refers to a ll vocal activities other than verbal context, also called the paralanguage. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or unconsciously and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds. The role of Haptics focuses on touch as an element of communication and is very much a function of culture. It can vary from touch and the frequency and intensity, like many other roles of non verbal communication. The communication environment consists of physical environment and spatial environment. Secondly, there are the communicators physical characteristics like physique general attractiveness, height, clothes and other accessories. Here I would wish to bring into focus an incident which I had observed on television. When Americans go for negotiation to Saudi Arabia, the female members accompanying the team would always wear a full body cover named Abhaya (not Burkha). But recently when Indian Prime Minister Dr.Manmohan Singh visited Saudi Arabia, Mrs.Manmohan Singh who accompanied him did not wear that. So looking at this incidence and by carefully observing, it can be said that there was a wrong cultural assumption from the Indian think tanks whereas even Mrs. Obama and Mrs. Clinton, did wear them during their respective visits. By wearing them is like respecting the feeling of Saudis, so here its the miscommunication made and the body language is like I dont care attitude, the opposite party can interpret it in that way. India is going there and its equally important for both countries, especially more for India, by doing this India is putting them in a wrong position right at the beginning itself. An another instance is when I was watching NDTV, a popular Indian news channel, there was a discussion with two leading political parties of India namely UPA and Left, which also included prominent news reporters. The discussion was regarding the past performance of the newly elected government. Usually a discussion of this kind can heat up at any time without warnings because thats how the Indian political scenario works. As expected, there was a hot exchange of words between the representatives of the parties who were sitting in close proximity. It was surprising to note that the opposite partys gesture by touching the hand of the other party member, couple of times to ease the tension. In Indian culture, this gesture is commonly used in easing tensed situation and making the opposite person calm during a meeting or discussion. A soft touch in the hand is considered as a humanitarian way of showing that there is no intension to start a fight (usually these gestures can be seen done my males) thereby avoiding the situation to get worse. This happens between people of Indian origin and in an Indian context; understanding and acting these small gestures can win a situation or even stabilize it. But in general, Asian cultures tend to discourage touching outside of intimate situations whereas certain other cultures like US allow cross-gender touching while same-gender is less acceptable. These rules change in Japan, where women are frequently seen holding hands but not men. In the Mediterranean, it is common to see men holding hands or touching in public but not women. So an awareness of these local norms is important and would help negotiators for better cross cultural negotiations. The use of space is called proxemics, and the use of time is chronemics. Environment involves the communicative value of the physical space. Unconsciously, we all keep a comfortable distance around us when we interact with other people. This distance has had several names over the years, including personal space, interpersonal distance, comfort zone, and body bubble. This space between us and another person forms invisible walls that define how comfortable we feel at various distances from other people. Business people, for example, assume significant meaning about desk size; its commonly assumed that the important people of companies occupy the top most floors of the company. Artifacts likewise is connected with communicative aspect of objects visible in a room such as art or possessions, these may be personal indicative of status of revealing lifestyle. In some societies much meaning is presumed by ones choice of automobile. Artifacts certainly play a role in cultural significance. For instance in many Western countries, pet shave great emotional significance; among many Arabs rugs are prestigious. It should be further emphasized that these codes do not usually function independently or sequentially, rather they work simultaneously. Moreover, nonverbal behaviour is always about sending messages. We cannot communicate without using them even though at times these messages are ambiguous. This wide range of nonverbal behaviour serves various functions in all face-to-face encounters (Gesteland, 2002). For instance at a companys important social meeting, the general manager is introduced to several new employees whom he has not met. Having greeted them with a dominant handshake, he stands at the social distance from the new employees. Knapp Hall (1997) claim that leaders and dominant personalities tend to also choose specific seats but seating position also can determine ones role in a group. Johnson (1993) says that choosing where to sit even if it means moving a chair or even deciding whether to sit, is significant. Anderson (1993) states that leaders and powerful people take up more space than others do. By taking up more space, they appear to be taking charge. Conversely, after shaking hands with the boss, the new employees take full or partial arm-fold gestures because of their apprehension about being in the presence of the companys top man. Both the general manager and the new employees feel comfortable with their respective gestures as each, is signaling his status relativ e to the other. A study conducted in the United States brought to light that, in more than 93 percent, the messages is transmitted by the speakers tone of voice and facial expressions; only 7 percent of the persons attitude was conveyed by words. Probably its a fact that we express our emotions and attitudes more nonverbally than verbally. There are however nonverbal differences across cultures that may be a source of confusion for foreigners. For example, expression of sadness, in culture such as the Arab, grief is expressed openly but this is just the opposite in the case of other cultures like the Asian. Here the general belief is that it is unacceptable to show emotion openly, whether its sadness, happiness or pain. Negotiation is a broad conflict management process involving discussions between and among individuals who are interdependent and need to come together for a decision or course of action; frequently associated with the need to compromise effectively (Shockley-Zalabak, 1988, p. 247). Negotiation consists of two distinct processes: creating value and claiming value. Creating value is a cooperative process whereby the parties in the negotiation seek to realize the full potential benefit of the relationship whereas claiming value is essentially a competitive process. The key to creating value is finding interests that the parties have in common or that complement each other, then reconciling and expanding upon these interests to create a positive situation. Parties at the negotiating table are interdependent and their goals are locked together. A seller cannot exist without a buyer. The purpose of a negotiation is a joint decision-making process through which the parties create a mutuall y acceptable settlement. The objective is to pursue a win-win situation for both parties. Sun Tzu once wrote: Know your enemy and know yourself and you can fight a hundred battles without disaster. It is perhaps a bit extreme to compare a business meeting to a battle and a business partner to an enemy but the main principle still holds. In order to be reliably successful in business you must understand both yourself and your partner. This understanding will enable you realize what makes your corresponding person tick, and thus understand how he is likely to react in a given situation. In order to gain the full advantage of this knowledge, it is also necessary to understand oneself, both so that one can accurately grasp in what areas the other party is similar or dissimilar, and in order to accurately see how your counterpart is likely to view you. Hill (1998) mentions cross-cultural literacy, and defines it as an understanding of how cultural differences both across and within natio ns can affect the way in which business is practiced (1998:66) If we consider the fact that negotiating with our fellow citizen is not an easy task due to many individual differences, it would be reasonable to suggest that negotiating in a cross cultural setting with people from different cultural boundaries may be even more difficult. The way we perceive and create our own reality may be completely different to our counterparts way of thinking, behaving and feeling. Its also a fact that gaining knowledge of different languages is not enough to face and solve the problem. Language is a cluster of codes used in communication which, if not shared effectively, can act as a barrier to establish credibility and trust. Nations tend to have a national character that influences the type of goals and process the society pursues in negotiations. This is why specifying and understanding cultural differences is vital in order to perform successfully in inter-cultural communication. As we better understand that our partners may see things differently, we wil l be less likely to make negative assumptions and more likely to make progress during meetings and cross cultural negotiations (Zieba, 2009). Japanese negotiators are known for their politeness, their emphasis on establishing relationships and their indirect use of power. Japanese concern with face and face-saving is one reason that politeness is so important and confrontation is avoided. They tend to use power in muted, indirect ways consistent with their preference for harmony and calm. In comparative studies, Japanese negotiators were found to disclose considerably less about themselves and their goals than French or American counterparts. Silence and pauses in conversations are normal. Two can strategically use breaks in conversational flows even in situations where they could process information faster and send messages sooner. In essence the period of silence provide a twofold advantage of reducing the possibility of introducing unproductive and destructive commends into conversations and providing breaks for reflection, designation of ideas and planning of communication strategy and tactics during negotiations. Thes e are consistent with the norms of Chinese and Japanese, however westerners might have discomfort in the same situations. They are very formal and polite and place great importance on proper protocol. They are also concerned with proper etiquette. British negotiation behaviour is characterized by the soft sell and their culture is relatively high in context. Americans usually like to get down to business quickly in a meeting which may lead to people from Chinese and Japanese cultures being offended. In spite of that, the discussion mostly proceeds at a much slower pace than US business people are accustomed. The Chinese uses high context speech and therefore use a lot of non-verbal cues to communicate. They may use feelings of guilt, shame and obligation to get certain kinds of concessions whereas Americans use less risk taking tactics to misrepresent in order to gain more information. In general, most Westerners expect a prompt answer when they make a statement or ask a question ra ther than long pauses and silence (Weiss, 1992). This form of Kinesic messages shows that even if one keeps silent, one is still conveying messages. Knapp Hall (1997, p. 332) state that The face may be the basis for judging another persons personality and that it can (and does) provide information other than ones emotional state. They found that how something is said is often more important than what is being said. In addition, Anderson (1993) suggests that people perceived as powerful, shift their position occasionally, making themselves appear in charge. However, the rise in the global business trend and cross cultural meetings has paved way for the Chinese and Japanese professionals in doing business with the West with relative ease and have shown tendency to modify their behaviours to accommodate west. Nonetheless, doing business in Japan necessitates preparing oneself by understanding areas such as business culture, business etiquette, and negotiation meeting protocols. For instance, bowing your head is an integral part of J apanese culture. It is used for greeting at beginning and end of the meetings to show gratitude or used in other occasions to express sympathy or to apologies but a Westerner would not be expected to bow and will most likely be greeted with a handshake combined with a slight nod of the head (Nelda Spinks 1997). The French, expect everyone to behave as they do when doing business which includes speaking their language. Negotiations are likely to be in French unless they occur outside France. The French enjoy conversation for the sake of conversation but they are also very pragmatic about details of the proposed agreement during negotiations. They are very much individualists and have a sense of pride that is sometimes interpreted as supremacy. They follow their own logic, referred to as Cartesian logic, when negotiating. These logics are based on principles previously established. It proceeds from what is known, in point-by-point fashion, until agreement is reached. Protocol, manners , status, education, family, and individual accomplishments are keys to success when dealing with the French. The French prefer detailed, firm contracts. They enjoy conflict and debate and will interrupt even the opening presentations with arguments of little or no relevance (Moran and Stripp, 1991). It is widely acknowledged fact that people from different countries tend to communicate in different ways. We argue that these differences are more related to different communication cultures than other differences. Being aware of these differences usually leads to better comprehension, fewer misunderstandings and to mutual respect along with the prospects of success and benefits in negotiations and cross cultural meetings (Janosik, 1991). The key to successful nonverbal cross-cultural communication is that one must be experienced, motivated, knowledgeable, skilled and competent communicator in the global marketplace. These factors are interrelated and a deficiency in one would impacts at least one of the other factors. The more the deficiency is reduced there is more likelihood of achieving a high level of cross-cultural communication. Spitzberg (1991) points out in his model of interpersonal communication competency that, there is an additive effect of these factors resulting in co mmunication satisfaction, perceived confirmation, and conversational appropriateness and effectiveness (p. 22). However these may not be true in all cases. For example, I would like to point out a particular instance from my personal experience wherein a subject becomes more important or more influencing factor in a face to face space negotiation, the subject is something slightly different than a pure technical one. If I am trying to create a thinking process or an idea or an ideology, I would like to spread that and make others understand, which is really important. So my aim would be to make others understand my thinking process, and to do that, I better do my homework properly and know exactly what others think, hence this topic is more valid in such context. When the negotiation is highly technical then all these dont make much difference because technical things are tangible. For example, if we say we would like to export one ship of rice to Kenya, the quantity of rice that can go to that ship load is tangible and the product in talk is also tangible as we can specify the type of rice. H ere, the negotiation is only about the final loading price for that particular merchant, so whatever language we talk (say I know everything about Kenya, I have hired a secretary for that and I have done everything for that) it work only if its feasible for me hence its pure technical. TATA motors was trying to sell their cars and trucks in Africa region but finally succeeded only in selling trucks because the tertian needed in that region is almost same as that of the Indian region. So there the buyer was only interested in the efficiency of the truck and the total maintenance cost, rest all was of least importance. For instance, consider an advertisement of any car in the daily, they are also communicating. We can see that some of these advertisement are related to festive moods like Easter so by means of picture, it is trying to relate us to that particular festival which helps us to get connect faster and thereby leading to buy the content. So here the language they use is a vis ual one. Another example is say early morning a person is ready to go for negotiation and finds that he has forgotten to take the thoughts and has the habit of sweating (sweating here indicates nervousness in a sense). Now imaging the condition of that person, he going to attend a important meeting, he will be biased because of the sweat and his body language would be completely wrong because of this irritation factor which is definitely going to affect his meeting. His conversation would be influenced by this irritation factor and there is a possibility that other members might misunderstand his body language or it could even be medical problem or a digestion problem or it could be something like a pillow given in the hotel. Instead of a soft pillow the person would have got a hard one and say that person has a spontaliaties problem, he would have a very bad night of sleep and this would reflect in his gestures. So its always not correct to say that one can understand and interpret the body language rightly, even if he has enormous experience and skills relating to it, as according to the above example, under such circumstances it would be very difficult to communicate in proper body language and even verbally may not be saying what he intended to say. Sometimes persons would be forced to do things they are not aware of because of various other factors related to it. It is not a pure science where oxygen and hydrogen combined together gives water, in any instance. In a positive sense, everything could hype a person up like the food that he had last night or the drink that he had or the company that he had, so there again he is not projecting his real self. The next day when he goes for a negotiation his spirits are high which also could be misread and misinterpreted by the opposite party. The opposite party would think that the person is much interested in the business or negotiation but the reaction would only come later, seeing him in high spirit, the opposite party would start in a entirely different way from what he had prepared earlier. As human beings, we act on the basis of our perceptions and beliefs. So if we have a particular view of human communication, then we will act on that view. If we have a faulty view, then our behaviour may cause problems. The behaviour of humans is bundled up by different complex set of factors from individual personality, the social context their respective cultural values. Negotiating behaviour can vary depending upon various other aspects from the age of the participant, class, religion and character, its complexity gives nuanced explanations (Hartley Bruckham, 2000). This is a classical example to show how different cross cultural non verbal signals are misread, the cost of it being delays and missed opportunities. This case comes during the early days when the American diplomats attended a meeting of US -China reconciliation. Cohen (1991) points out that U.S. observers entirely missed the most significant Chinese signal of reconciliation of all in the 1970-71 periods. In October 1970, Chairman Mao invited an American author and journalist to stand next to him at the Gate of Heavenly Peace. While this gesture seems obscure to American diplomats and hence they did not respond to it, the symbolism was clear to the Chinese, who expected a significant response. These gaps in nonverbal gestures created friction among these two nations, if addressed in its rightful instance could have brought out fruitful results beneficial to both nations.
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